In a foreign key constraint, we might indicate the table at the other end of the constraint; in an index, we might indicate the column names that compose this index. The diagram below illustrates one of the least apparent but significant constraints within Snowflake that within the same Account, every Role, Warehouse, and Database name must be unique. Keep the length to a maximum of 30 bytesin practice this is 30 characters unless you are using a multi-byte character set. Introduction. The database shall live for a long time. in queries like this: But what if we have to join ACCOUNT as well? The naming standards are grouped into the following sections: Database objects. This would save database developers the task of finding out what conditions a membership must meet to be approved. for identifying system-stored Use a naming convention that is easy to understand. To learn more, see our tips on writing great answers. Abbreviations should not be used unless absolutely necessary as required by the maximum length enforced for column and table names in which case it is likely that a different, more succinct name should be considered. But sometimes they do. Table names must follow the rules for SQL Server identifiers, and be less than 128 characters. In our database, the foreign key that relates tables call and call_outcome is called call_call_outcome. SQL is unlike any other computer language in that it was designed to be as close to human language as possible, so it could be used by lay people to do business analysis. If you have to quote an . No doubt there are subjective personal preferences in there too but they are based on many years of experiences out in the field. Never use a descriptive prefix such as tbl_. Most data warehouses follow a similar pattern for the names they allow you to give to a dataset: database_name.schema_name.table_name. PostgreSQL objects include tables, views, and columns. What are the options for storing hierarchical data in a relational database? Learn about who we are, our vision and how were changing the future of work. Foreign Key : APFU_APPL_FK Suporting Index: APFU_APPL_FK_I. This can include using specific prefixes or suffixes for table names, such as "tbl" or "t_", to distinguish them from other types of objects. The naming convention for a primary key is as in the following. Entrepreneurship, Digital Marketing, Design & Ecommerce. "usp". SQL keywords capitalized, semi-colons to separate statements, etc. ("User" table not "Users"), Abbreviations are few, but allowed Any links to design styles or best practice guides for table design would be appreciated, too! Do not prefix the column name with a table name or short code, such as user_first_name. Their argument is that an entity is a single thing, not a set of things. Here's a list of rules I've found very useful in the past: Tables, views, and other "tabular things" may quickly conflict with each other. This highlights the importance of establishing very clear database schema naming conventions as the first step in schema design. Adding those kind of prefixes to column names will make a table more difficult to evolve. How can I get column names from a table in SQL Server? While some people claim UPPER CASE IS FASTEST: Others do not agree on the "correct" case: There seems to be a tendency towards writing identifiers in lower case, with no agreement on the case of keywords. Once you've chosen a naming convention and decided to stick to it, apply it to both CTEs and tables. Such objects are not usually represented in database diagrams, instead being mentioned in schema metadata queries, in logs or execution plans, or in error messages thrown by the database engine. Go hands-on with SQL in our free interactive SQL tutorial. Others prefer to use the plural, considering that the table is a container for a collection of things. For example, you can establish that tables starting with INV belong to an invoicing app and those starting with PAY belong to a payroll app. In this article, Ill try to use these rules youll meet in most cases. Indicates a data set that is being cleaned and standardized. If you have a column in one table. Naming conventions are a set of rules or guidelines for choosing and formatting the names of database objects, such as tables, columns, views, procedures, functions, and variables. v_ for varchar, n_ for numeric, d_ for the date, F_ for flag columns. Over 2 million developers have joined DZone. Maintaining consistent SQL formatting across a team can be challenging, especially when different developers have different preferences or styles. Hint: Use singular for table names (user, role), and not plural (users, roles). By using BrainStation, you agree to our privacy policy. Stored procedure naming is important . Youll apply these rules while naming anything inside the database tables, columns, primary and foreign keys, stored procedures, functions, views, etc. Note the table name prefixes of "Dim" for dimensions and "Fact" for fact tables. Column name naming conventions and best practices. Also, in most dialects, people prefer snake_case for identifiers, although in SQL Server, people seem to prefer PascalCase or camelCase. Tools and plugins for automating formatting: One way to ensure consistent SQL formatting is to use tools or plugins that can automatically format the code according to a set of predefined rules. (i.e. Naming Conventions in MySQL. Employee, Customer, Address, etc. If possible, use a single word that exactly describes what is in the table. Object names can contain numbers, #, $, @, but avoid using them. 73. After any prefix with a special meaning (@ meaning a table variable, # meaning a temporary table or ## meaning a global temporary table), the first letter must be a letter as defined by Unicode Standard 3.2. Exclude irrelevant columns and rename any columns that are confusing. My suggestion would be to always go with names in the singular. PL/SQL Packages and Procedures. If its readable, anybody who jumps into the project should be aware of what is where and how the data is related. Published at DZone with permission of Lukas Eder. How is the 'right to healthcare' reconciled with the freedom of medical staff to choose where and when they work? /models/marts. Maybe the most important reason to use it is to simplify life to yourself. Ive had to work with many databases where the names of objects were intentionally obfuscated or reduced to short, fixed-length strings that were impossible to understand without resorting to a data dictionary. In case you have something specific for your database, you can list all such exceptions in one short document. So, once this practice is embraced, it should be applied everywhere. We want to add a many-to-many relation telling us that a user had a certain role. Functions are a set of SQL statements that accept only input parameters, perform actions and return the result.The function can return an only single value or a table. Table of contents. Some people use prefixes or suffixes to denote an elements type so that it can be easily identified without referencing the schema description or the database metadata. Reserved Words. Joins and unions: When working with joins or unions, it's important to format them in a consistent and readable way. Or they add a suffix that denotes the data type of each column. We already used A for ADDRESS, so we cannot reuse A. When you have a data warehouse with hundreds or thousands of tables, it can be difficult to keep track of them all. Emil is a database professional with 10+ years of experience in everything related to databases. Even the names of objects cannot be changed without the risk of breaking the applications accessing the database. Another technique that I've found very useful in the past is a standard approach to aliasing things. indexes, triggers, or constraints). Examples are below: Learn SQL: Naming Conventions. Capitalization: Capitalization is another important aspect of SQL formatting. A prefix denoting the type of object is considered good practice when naming table- or column-dependent objects (e.g. This list a best practices for names conventions in file modeling will help you do it to right way. You can quickly find all the columns with redundancy in their names if they are expressed with the dotted notation. Did Jesus have in mind the tradition of preserving of leavening agent, while speaking of the Pharisees' Yeast? A naming convention is a set of rules and guidelines for selecting the character sequence that can be used for identifiers or names . First I discuss general rules about naming database objects. Never apply the collective name to the property, such as having an Employee_name property in an Employee table. Additionally, feedback can help improve the overall quality and efficiency of the code by identifying areas for optimization or improvement. 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Remember that a view name should indicate its purpose. See also : For the first time in eleven years of travel, I became profoundly sick while on the road. Obviously, the standard verbs and nouns will come from the database design process and the data model of the organisation or the application domain. Real polynomials that go to infinity in all directions: how fast do they grow? Rob Aird Engineering. Naming convention criteria cannot be enforced by the database engine. During the years, he worked in the IT and finance industry and now works as a freelancer. Naming conventions help people analyze data consistently because they clarify what each column is and how it can be used. You will learn about data and databases in a more general sense, and then proceed to become familiar with tools and practices for working with data specifically in React Native. Stored procedures. Tags: naming assembly; Apply names to obj in your data is not a trivial task. Change naming conventions in SQL Server. Stored procedures usually run a set of actions and return a dataset. Especially in Oracle, where one does not simply create a schema because of all the security hassles this produces (schemas and users are kinda the same thing, which is nuts of course. Additionally, it also helps in maintaining the code in the long run, as well-formatted code is easier to update and modify. Proper name for reference tables in OLTP. 1. Avoid quotes while naming a database object. customer as opposed to customers. However, by following a set of best practices and using the right tools, you can ensure that your team's SQL code is consistent, readable, and efficient. Emil is a database professional with 10+ years of experience in everything related to databases. Using underscore as a word separator in compound names is the way to go for capitalized names; it ensures the names can be easily read at a glance. Six years later and still getting +1 for a well laid out answer with links and good summary. int_. . Therefore, you can expect that the database will stay, more or less, very similar to its initial production version. becomes, If the name contains three or more underscores, take the first letter of each word, If a new abbreviation causes a conflict with the existing ones, make a pragmatic choice, What table a given column originates from, If that column has an index you can use (on a query against the view! Also not to forget, BI, creating algorithms, chess, philately, 2 dogs, 2 cats, 1 wife, 1 baby Wish I could upvote twice. If you have been given the task of defining a database schema naming convention, it is important that you create it with the purpose of benefiting the users. If your organization already has naming conventions, you may be faced with a problem: most existing . There are certain style rules in SQL Server, but not that many. Looking to become an instructor or guest speaker? using exclusively lower case letters for column names so aid scanning by the human eye. In SQL, this is a bit different. As the amount of data we generate and store continues to grow exponentially, it's more important than ever to ensure that our SQL code is readable, efficient, and consistent. This can include using specific prefixes or suffixes for table names, such as "tbl" or . Do not give a table the same name as one of its columns. I've heard heated arguments over whether a table should be named "OrderHeader" or "OrderHeaders.". . His past and present engagements vary from database design and coding to teaching, consulting, and writing about databases. Can someone please tell me what is written on this score? Improper Named Foreign Key Relationship. If the name contains three or more underscores, take . With regards to writing good SQL code, there are a number of SQL naming conventions as well as best practices which should be followed. I'm undecided whether this is necessarily a good thing in general. We can test for compliance with SQL Server identifier spec very simply with the following SQL. If we have tables product and invoice, and we want to specify which products were on which invoice, we could name that table invoice_product or invoice_contains_product. Opinions expressed by DZone contributors are their own. That shall be especially the case if youre using the most common naming convention rules. There are only two hard things in Computer Science: cache invalidation and naming things -- Phil Karlton Naming convention is a set of rules for choosing the character sequence to be used for identifiers which denote variables, types, functions, and other entities in source code and documentation. Another good schema naming practice is to adopt clear criteria for the use of compound names. Ensure the name is unique and does not exist as a reserved keyword. Read on to learn how to style your SQL and some recommendations in this "SQL Style Guide and Best Practices". To locate a specific item such as tables, functions, SQL Server utilizes object names and schema names. As a rule of thumb, all foreign key columns should be indexed. See SQL Code Smells for more SQL Smells. When considering database table naming conventions, you must make a decision that seems trivial but is actually crucial: use plural or singular nouns for the names. See SQL Server Table Smells for SQL Code that flushes out more general problems with tables. Also, using the naming convention is not the rule, but its desired. We cant use only call, because we already have the table call in the database. Abbreviations and prefixes should be avoided; they only cause confusion to everyone that needs to work with the database. Making statements based on opinion; back them up with references or personal experience. when e.employment = 2 then 'PT'. Object-oriented design principles should not be applied to SQL or database structures. For example, there is no problem if you have . SQL queries where the database name will change, Why do we set the "Property" in stored procedure mapping in EF6, Insert into values ( SELECT FROM ). Since you dont usually have to write the names of dependent objects (like foreign keys or indexes) in SQL statements, its not really important if they are long or do not meet the same naming criteria as objects like tables, fields, or views. Of the six Tandemites who responded, four preferred pluralized and two preferred . Applying the rules youve set for the database design will help not only you but also others who will work with the database. Subsequent characters can legally be. Naming conventions: One common best practice when formatting SQL code is to use consistent naming conventions for tables and columns. Resources and contact information for our media partners. exception of certain column names However, Function Apps configuration is beyond , Phil writing for Redgate Product Learning, List Azure Functions based on Configuration Values. Our courses are part-time and can take anywhere from 5 to 10 weeks to complete. SQL format refers to the standardized way of formatting SQL code to make it more readable and consistent. But if we don't re-use the same aliases in every query, the queries start to be a bit confusing to read. There's a bit of a controversy among designers when it comes to choosing singular or plural forms for entity, table, and view names. "BRAINSTATION" and the BrainStation Logo are trademarks of BrainStation Inc. All Rights Reserved. Line length and wrapping: It's important to keep the lines of code at a reasonable length to prevent horizontal scrolling and to make it easier to read the code. Also, it will be much easier to query the INFORMATION_SCHEMA database in search of specific patterns e.g., checking if all tables have the primary key attribute named id; do we have a stored procedure that performs an insert for each table, etc. On the other hand, using the word outcome wouldnt clearly describe what is in the table, so using the call_outcome as the table name seems like a good choice. In my experience, adopting a database schema naming convention that forces developers and designers to encode object names, or to use names with no meaning at all, is a complication without any benefit. PostgreSQL - WAL segment file creation and naming conventions. This article describes standard naming conventions for tables and columns, and it provides code that leverages the conventions to visualize dependencies and automatically validate and generate foreign key constraints. We could just not use aliases and always fully qualify all identifiers: But that quickly turns out to be verbose, especially with longer table names, so also not very readable. SQL naming conventions. You could have, among other things, these choices: Customer_GetList CustomerList GetCustomerList GetCustomers ListCustomers. One of the most popular pieces of advice is to equip columns with unique names in a database. What screws can be used with Aluminum windows? Poorly-named tables and other objects make it difficult to maintain databases. Use all lowercase for column and table names and to separate words with an underscore (_). Still, that decision is completely up to you. Tables and columns should be given clear, easily understandable and uniquely identifying names. You can find him on LinkedIn e.g. So, the first best naming convention practice is to use meaningful names. I found Naming Guidelines from MSDN, but is it any guideline for MSSQL database from Microsoft? The next step was to decide where in this structure to include the domain, grain and stage information. Our goal is to create legible, concise and consistent names for our database objects. 11. In addition to basic formatting rules, there are several advanced SQL formatting techniques that can make your code even more readable and consistent. With respect to naming stored procedures - do not prefix them with "sp_" You can read more about why in this link: "Do not prefix stored procedures with Site design / logo 2023 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA. It's about ensuring that your code is efficient, maintainable, and scalable, and that it can be easily understood by others. It's easy to keep consistent, and you can also easily recognize things like: I think that if you work with views extensively (I've worked with schemas of 1000+ views in the past), then such a naming convention is almost mandatory. Using a suffix indicating the data type of each column does not add useful information. I would have thought the personal preferences of the documentation team lead would be the greatest factor here. Let's say you had a student table and a subject table as I've used in many of my SQL function examples. But it's just a matter of preference. How to provision multi-tier a file system across fast and slow storage while combining capacity? Each Primary Key name should have a "PK_" prefix. It helps greatly to start with a dictionary of the correct nouns and verbs associated with the application domain and use that. When going through and recreating the schema with views of the relevant tables you should also clean up what's in each table. Asking for help, clarification, or responding to other answers. Celko's naming convention is based on on the international standard ISO 11179 e.g. Several times in this article, I've mentioned you should treat CTEs as any other table. Ive already stated it in the intro, but more generally, a naming convention is a set of rules you decide to go with before you start modeling your database. Of course, you could decide to only set naming convention rules for tables and column names. This is easy to work around, but a tedious problem to think of all the time. Imagine that we have tables user and role. You can either use camel case (e.g. database-design; join; naming-convention; Share. On the plus side, things have improved in the SQL Server docs in recent years e.g. In this article, we'll explore the importance of SQL formatting and provide a beginner's guide to best practices and tips for consistent formatting. One of Java's big strengths, in my opinion, is the fact that most naming conventions have been established by the creators of the language. Don't use it as an object name. The use of the tbl_prefix for a table, often called tibbling, came from databases imported from Access when SQL Server was first introduced. What's more, you can use these abbreviations everywhere, not just when writing joins: But also when aliasing columns in views or derived tables: This becomes invaluable when your queries become more complex (say, 20-30 joins) and you start projecting tons of columns in a library of views that select from other views that select from other views. View all posts by Emil Drkusic, 2023 Quest Software Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. One more reason to use it is that you probably wont be the only one working with the database. 9. rev2023.4.17.43393. This can help make the code more readable and concise, especially when working with large or complex queries. Learn more about SQL, a standard language for interacting with databases and storing, manipulating, and retrieving data from databases.Go hands-on with SQL in our free interactive SQL tutorial. Names in PostgreSQL must begin with a letter (a-z) or underscore (_). One caveat: database naming conventions can be very controversial and most database developers I've met have a personal stake in their style. If it proves inadequate, then the team can build on it. In a schema that stores membership information, for example, you could create a view of approved memberships. They can also distinguish tables with cold data from tables with hot data, if this kind of distinction is a top priority in your schema. sp_, because this prefix is reserved Conclusion. For example, we try to keep primary key columns first, followed by all foreign key columns so you can find relationships at a glance, followed by all additional columns in alphabetical order so you can find the one you want when a table has tons of columns. By following these best practices and using the right tools, you can ensure that your team's SQL code is consistent, readable, and efficient, even when working on large or complex projects. By using version control, you can easily roll back to previous versions of the code if formatting errors or inconsistencies are introduced. Is the amplitude of a wave affected by the Doppler effect? Sure, some are debatable or based on personal opinion: you might want to get inspiration from here and define something . One of the fetures used for this is the Azure Resource Graph . To make subqueries more readable, it's recommended to format them in a similar way to the main query, using indentation, capitalization, and alignment as appropriate. In our database, one such example would be the call_outcome table. too much debugging and not much development. By clicking Post Your Answer, you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy and cookie policy. This is important when it is mentioned in an execution log or error message. Start your career in tech today. Indexes to support foreign keys should be named using the foreign key name with the suffix '_I'. This is easy to achieve in some cases, particularly when you create a conceptual schema with tables that contain information on tangible elements: Users, Employees, Roles, Payrolls, etc. Avoid Concatenating Table Names in Many-to-Many Relationships If Possible. When naming tables, you have two options to use the singular for the table name or to use a plural. We could use names user_has_role, or if we want to be shorter user_role. 2.Comply with 3NF standard 3NF regulations. can one turn left and right at a red light with dual lane turns? Most SQL databases support only a 3-4 layered set of namespaces: In any case, there is no such concept as package ("schema") hierarchies as there is in languages like Java, which makes namespacing in SQL quite tricky. Smells for SQL code that flushes out more general problems with tables execution log or error message healthcare... All foreign key that relates tables call and call_outcome is called call_call_outcome column name with a the! Return a dataset: database_name.schema_name.table_name might want to be a bit confusing to read and concise especially. Unions: when working with the database separate statements, etc, are. Another technique that I 've heard heated arguments over whether a table in SQL Server table for. Similar pattern for the first best naming convention practice is to use meaningful names names so aid scanning the... Treat CTEs as any other table and coding to teaching, consulting, and writing about databases or for! Storing hierarchical data in sql table naming conventions best practices schema that stores membership information, for example, there is no problem if have! Schema design ) or underscore ( _ ) a good thing in general not prefix the name! Others prefer to use a naming convention criteria can not be enforced by Doppler... Concatenating table names ( user, role ), and columns should be aware of is! Areas for optimization or improvement code if formatting errors or inconsistencies are introduced Post your answer you... People seem to prefer PascalCase or camelCase teaching, consulting, and be less than characters! Code is efficient, maintainable, and be less than 128 characters scanning by the database prefer for! Criteria for the names they allow you to give to a dataset: database_name.schema_name.table_name he. Short code, such as user_first_name 's naming convention for a well laid out answer with links and good.! And readable way once this practice is to create legible, concise and consistent for. I would have thought the personal preferences of the six Tandemites who responded, four preferred and..., easily understandable and uniquely identifying names indicates a data warehouse with hundreds or thousands of tables, have... The rule, but is it any guideline for MSSQL database from Microsoft when you have a stake! Here and define something the Azure Resource Graph in SQL Server identifiers, in. Most data warehouses follow a similar pattern for the first best naming convention that is easy to work with following! The next step was to decide where in this structure to include the domain grain! Different developers have different preferences or styles many years of experience in everything to. Of a wave affected by the database primary key name should have a personal stake their! Could decide to only set naming convention criteria can not be enforced by the human.... Controversial and most database developers the task of finding out what conditions a must... Clicking Post your answer, you could have, among other things, these choices: CustomerList! Allow you to give to a maximum of 30 bytesin practice this is characters! Allow you to give to a maximum of 30 bytesin practice this is important when it is that probably! Multi-Byte character set of SQL formatting across a team can build on it using version control, you may faced. To start with a letter ( a-z ) or underscore ( _.. First best naming convention practice is to adopt clear criteria for the names of objects not..., our vision and how it can be very controversial and most developers! Rules for SQL code is easier to update and modify the singular the! To learn more, see our tips on writing great answers answer, may... The next step was to decide where in this structure to include the domain, and... Be aware of what is where and when they work most existing up... Case letters for column and table names must follow the rules youve set for the use of compound names with. Policy and cookie policy table- or column-dependent objects ( e.g _ ) who jumps into the project should named. Will help not only you but also others who will work with the following SQL you. And use that identifiers, although in SQL Server identifiers, and columns have mind... Of prefixes to column names that go to infinity in all directions: how fast do they?. Best naming convention is based on many years of experience in everything related to databases teaching,,. To format them in a relational database tbl & quot ; tbl & quot ; or for is! Keywords capitalized, semi-colons to separate words with an underscore ( _ ) may faced! Or improvement you could decide to only set naming convention rules for SQL code to. That can make your code is to simplify life to yourself warehouses follow similar. Travel, I & # x27 ; PT & # x27 ; PT & # x27 ; t use is! Be enforced by the human eye about ensuring that your code is to use the singular for the design! Getting +1 for a primary key is as in the table call in the it and finance industry now! Because we already have the table call in the SQL Server table Smells for SQL code to it... Of service, privacy policy and cookie policy and define something spec very simply with the freedom medical! There too but they are expressed with the freedom of medical staff to choose where and when they?! The long run, as well-formatted code is efficient, maintainable, and scalable and! ; they only cause confusion to everyone that needs to work around, but is it any guideline MSSQL! Already used a for ADDRESS, so we can not be enforced by the Doppler?. By the human eye length to a maximum of 30 bytesin practice this is characters! On the plus side, things have improved in the following sections: objects! If formatting errors or inconsistencies are introduced OrderHeader '' or `` OrderHeaders. `` convention that is to... Sql format refers to the property, such as tables, views, and writing about databases make. Names can contain numbers, #, $, @, but avoid using them is how. Us that a user had a certain role standardized way of formatting SQL code to... The human eye is important when it is to create legible, concise and consistent good schema naming,... Preferences of the code in the singular for the names of objects can not be without., semi-colons to separate statements, etc some are debatable or based on personal opinion you! Life to yourself argument is that an entity is a set of actions and return dataset... Or inconsistencies are introduced a multi-byte character set OrderHeaders. `` in Server. Be used when naming tables, it should be aware of what in! Years e.g: database naming conventions using a multi-byte character set the six Tandemites who responded, preferred! All foreign key that relates tables call and call_outcome is called call_call_outcome all foreign columns..., functions, SQL Server utilizes object names can contain numbers, #, $, @, but it... Names so aid scanning by the Doppler effect where and when they work: capitalization another. In queries like this: but what if we want to be shorter user_role greatest here. Set for the names they allow you to give to a maximum 30. And slow storage while combining capacity Jesus have in mind the tradition of preserving of leavening agent, speaking... ), and not plural ( users, roles ) have a & quot ; &! Who we are, our vision and how it can be used for this is characters... Cause confusion sql table naming conventions best practices everyone that needs to work with the database we want to a. In an execution log or error message me what is written on this score ve mentioned you treat. Anywhere from 5 to 10 weeks to complete the foreign key columns should be applied to SQL or database.... Options to use it is mentioned in an execution log or error message the queries start be! Everything related to databases MSSQL database from Microsoft most database developers the task finding. I 've met have a personal stake in their names if they are expressed with the database compliance SQL... And readable way 30 characters unless sql table naming conventions best practices are using a suffix that denotes the data is related undecided this... Argument is that you probably wont be the greatest factor here all the time right at a red with. Terms of service, privacy policy is necessarily a good thing in general use meaningful names personal stake in style! Call_Outcome table enforced by the Doppler effect one working with joins or unions, it should be of! Sql in our database, one such example would be the only one working with the following sections: naming. Flag columns singular for the names they allow you to give to a maximum of 30 bytesin practice this 30. To always go with names in a schema that stores membership information, for example, can. Preferences of the Pharisees ' Yeast ; back them up with references or personal experience to 10 to... Less, very similar to its initial production version but if we to! Data warehouse with hundreds or thousands of tables, it should be ;... Jesus have in mind the tradition of preserving of leavening agent, while speaking of the used... General rules about naming database objects while speaking of the most popular pieces of advice is to create,. Follow a similar pattern for the database will stay, more or,! Are trademarks of BrainStation Inc. all Rights reserved object names and to statements. Were changing the future of work privacy policy and cookie policy so aid by... Addition to basic formatting rules, there are several advanced SQL formatting across a team can be easily understood others...